ABPS 1103
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Meor Mohd Jamil Bin Zaiyan
a.
Introduction
Social psychology is the scientific
study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the
actual, imagined, or implied presence of others
(Allport, G.W., 1998). By this definition, scientific refers to the
empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
include all of the psychological variables that are measurable in a human
being. The statement that others may be imagined or implied suggests that we
are prone to social influence even when no other people are present, such as
when watching television, or following internalized cultural norms. According
to Myers (2008) “Social psychology is the
scientific study of how people think about, influence and relate to one
another” (Azlina Abu Bakar @ Mohd, 2015).
Social psychology is about
understanding individual behavior in a social context. Baron, Byrne & Suls
(1989) define social psychology as 'the scientific field that
seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behavior in social
situations' (McLeod, S., 2007). It
therefore looks at human behavior as influenced by other people and the social
context in which this occurs. Social psychologists therefore deal with the
factors that lead us to behave in a given way in the presence of others, and
look at the conditions under which certain behavior or actions and feelings
occur. Social psychology is to do with the way these feelings, thoughts,
beliefs, intentions and goals are constructed and how such psychological
factors, in turn, influence our interactions with others (McLeod, S., 2007).
In light of the present arguments,
the continued attempt to build general laws of social behavior seems
misdirected, and the associated belief that knowledge of social interaction can
be accumulated in a manner similar to the natural sciences appears unjustified.
In essence, the study of social psychology is primarily an historical
undertaking (Gergen, J. K, 1973). The
discipline of social psychology began in the United States at the dawn of the
twentieth century. The first published study in this area was an experiment by
Norman Triplett (1898) on the phenomenon of social facilitation. During the
1930s, many Gestalt psychologists, particularly Kurt Lewin, fled to the United
States from Nazi Germany. They were instrumental in developing the field as
something separate from the behavioral and psychoanalytic schools that were
dominant during that time, and social psychology has always maintained the legacy
of their interests in perception and cognition. Attitudes and a variety of
small group phenomena were the most commonly studied topics in this era.
b. Four Main Goals of Social
Psychology Research.
Social psychology is an experimental
science which means research in social psychology uses systematic methods to
gather information. Social psychologists organize their ideas and findings into
theories. An exciting feature about research in social psychology is that it
explores events related to everyday experiences (Azlina
Abu Bakar @ Mohd, 2015).
(a) Social psychological research
has four main goals as shown in Figure 1.0:
Figure 1.0: Four main goals in social
psychological research (Taylor et al., 2003)
(i)
Description
A major goal of research in social
psychology is to provide a systematic description of social behavior that
enables researchers to make reliable generalizations about how human beings act
in various situations (Azlina Abu Bakar @ Mohd,
2015).
Description refers to the procedures
used to define, classify and categorize subjects and their relationships.
Descriptions allow us to establish generalizations and universals. By gathering
information on a large group of people, for instance, a researcher can describe
the average member or the average performance of a member of the specific group
being studied.
Describing observations of large
groups of people does not take away from the fact that there are important
differences among individuals. That is, researchers merely attempt to describe
subjects or events on the basis of average performance (generally speaking).
Alternatively, description allows researchers to describe a single phenomenon
and or observations of a single person.
In science, descriptions are
systematic and precise. Scientific research makes use of operational
definitions. Operational definitions characterize events, qualities and
concepts in terms of observable operations, or procedures used to measure them.
Researchers are interested in describing only things that are relevant to the
study. They have no interest in describing observations that are irrelevant to
the investigation (Hale, J., 2011).
(ii)
Theory Building
Another goal in social psychology is
to develop theories and gain a better understanding of social behavior that
help social psychologists to understand why people behave in certain ways.
Theories help social psychologists to organize and make predictions that can be
tested in further research (Azlina Abu Bakar @
Mohd, 2015).
A researcher begins
with a set of phenomena and either constructs a theory to explain or interpret
them or chooses an existing theory to work with. He or she then makes a
prediction about some new phenomenon that should be observed if the theory is
correct. This prediction is called a hypothesis. The researcher then conducts
an empirical study to test the hypothesis. Finally, he or she re-evaluates the
theory in light of the new results and revises it if necessary. This process is
usually conceptualized as a cycle because the researcher can then derive a new
hypothesis from the revised theory, conduct a new empirical study to test the
hypothesis, and so on.
Constructing theories is one of the
more creative parts of scientific research. But as with all creative
activities, success requires preparation and hard work more than anything else.
To construct a good theory, a researcher must know in detail about the
phenomena of interest and about any existing theories based on a thorough
review of the literature. The new theory must provide a coherent explanation or
interpretation of the phenomena of interest and have some advantage over
existing theories. It could be more formal and therefore more precise, broader
in scope, or it could take a new perspective or theoretical approach. If there
is no existing theory, then almost any theory can be a step in the right
direction.
However, for a researcher to start
with a theory that was originally constructed by someone else—giving due credit
to the originator of the theory. This type of investigation is another example
of how researchers work collectively to advance scientific knowledge. Once they
have identified an existing theory, they might derive a hypothesis from the
theory and test it or modify the theory to account for some new phenomenon and
then test the modified theory.
To use theories in your
research will not only give you guidance in coming up with experiment ideas and
possible projects, but it lends legitimacy to your work. Psychologists have
been interested in a variety of human behaviors and have developed many
theories along the way. Using established theories will help you break new
ground as a researcher, not limit you from developing your own ideas (Paul C. Price et al., 2015).
(iii)
Casual Analysis
Social psychologists seek to
establish cause and effect relationships. Changes in one variable accompanied
by changes in another in no way guarantees that a causal link exists between
them. In many cases, two variables tend to rise or fall together. This simply
shows that both are caused by the third variable (Azlina Abu Bakar @ Mohd, 2015).
In the physical sciences, such as
physics and chemistry, it is fairly easy to establish causality, because a good
experimental design can neutralize any potentially confounding variables.
Sociology, at the other extreme, is exceptionally prone to causality issues,
because individual humans and social groups vary so wildly and are subjected to
a wide range of external pressures and influences.
For results to have any meaning, a
researcher must make causality the first priority, simply because it can have
such a devastating effect upon validity. Most experiments with some validity
issues can be salvaged, and produce some usable data. An experiment with no
established cause and effect, on the other hand, will be practically useless
and a waste of resources (Shuttleworth, M.,
2009).
(iv)
Application
Findings from research in social
psychology can help to solve every day social problems such as love and
intimacy problems, how to control anger, how to change negative attitudes, how
to behave in groups, and so on. Today, researchers are using social
psychological principles to find ways to understand prejudice against people
with AIDS (Azlina Abu Bakar @ Mohd, 2015).
c. The difference between
correlational and experimental research.
Psychological researches fall into two major types of
methodologies namely correlational research and experimental research. Any
student doing major in psychology needs to understand the differences between
these two methodologies to be able to design his psychological study (Admin, 2012).
Correlation Research
In correlational research, the researcher carefully
observes and records the relationship between two or more factors, known
technically as variables. In correlational design, the researcher does not
influence samples’ behavior in any way but merely records the information
needed. This kind of research asks if there is an association between the
variables (Azlina Abu Bakar @ Mohd, 2015).
If an increase in one variable tends to be associated
with an increase in the other then this is known as a positive correlation. An
example would be height and weight. Taller people tend to be heavier. If an
increase in one variable tends to be associated with a decrease in the other
then this is known as a negative correlation. An example
would be height above sea level and temperature. As you climb the mountain
(increase in height) it gets colder (decrease in temperature). When there is no
relationship between two variables this is known as a zero correlation. For
example there is no relationship between the amount of tea drunk and level of
intelligence (McLeod, S., 2008).
A correlation can be expressed visually. This is done by
drawing a scatter gram - that is one can plot the figures for one variable
against the figures for the other on a graph.
Figures
2.0: Scatter gram Source: McLeod, S. (2008)
When you draw a scatter gram it doesn't matter which
variable goes on the x-axis and which goes on the y-axis. Remember, in
correlations we are always dealing with paired scores, so the values of the 2
variables taken together will be used to make the diagram. Decide which
variable goes on each axis and then simply put a cross at the point where the 2
values coincide.
Strictly speaking correlation is not a research method
but a way of analyzing data gathered by other means. This might be useful, for
example, if we wanted to know if there were an association between watching
violence on T.V. and a tendency towards violent behavior in adolescence
(Variable B = number of incidents of violent behavior observed by teachers).
Another area where correlation is widely used is in the
study of intelligence where research has been carried out to test the strength
of the association between the I.Q. levels of identical and non-identical twins
(McLeod, S., 2008).
The correlational method allows social psychologists to
collect more information and measure more relationships than they can in most
experiments. Correlational studies also enable researchers to study problems in
which intervention is not possible. However, the correlational method does not
provide clear-cut evidence of cause and effect relationships (Azlina Abu Bakar @ Mohd, 2015).
Experimental Research
In contrast, experimental research design is
intervention. The researcher puts a sample in a controlled situation and
assesses how they react. The researcher creates two or more conditions that
differ from each other. For example, by exposing children to violent and
nonviolent movies, researchers can observe how the amount of violence affects
behavior (Azlina Abu Bakar @ Mohd, 2015).
In an experiment, an independent variable (the cause) is
manipulated and the dependent variable (the effect) is measured; any extraneous
variables are controlled. An advantage is that experiments should be objective.
The views and opinions of the researcher should not affect the results of a
study. This is good as it makes the data more valid, and less bias (McLeod, S., 2012). There are three types of
experiments:
1. Laboratory / Controlled Experiments
This type of experiment is conducted in a
well-controlled environment – not necessarily a laboratory – and therefore
accurate measurements are possible. The researcher decides where the experiment
will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances
and using a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each
independent variable group.
Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real
life) environment of the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the
independent variable, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control
extraneous variables).
3. Natural Experiments
Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e.
real life) environment of the participants, but here the experimenter has no
control over the IV as it occurs naturally in real life..
Table 1.0: Comparing Correlational and
Experimental Methods
Correlational
|
Experimental
|
|
Independent
variable
Unambiguous
causality
Exploratory
Theory testing
Test many
relationships
|
Varies naturally
Usually not
Often
Often
Usually
|
Controlled by
researcher Yes
Usually not
Usually
Usually not
|
Source: Taylor et al., 2003
d. One example of experiment research in the field of
psychology
Experimental research is what most people consider being
more scientific though non experimental does not mean that the research is
unscientific by any means. It is human nature to try to find out what happens
when changes are introduced in variables. Thus, taking up the previous example
of blood pressure and cholesterol, a research can deliberately increase the
blood pressure of a subject and then record his cholesterol levels to see if
there is any increase or decrease. If changes induced in a variable lead to
changes in another variable, a researcher is in a position to say that there is
a causal relationship between the two variables (Admin, 2012).
The example of experiment: Hodges and Tizard Study
Aims
- To investigate the effect of institutional
upbringing on later attachments.
- To investigate the effects
of privation on later social and emotional development.
- To investigate if the effects of
privation can be reversed.
Procedure
Jill Hodges and Barbara Tizard (1989) followed the
development of 65 children who had been in residential nurseries from only a
few months old. This is known as a longitudinal study. The study was also a
field experiment. The independent variable (what happened to the children at
age 4) occurred naturally. The care provided was of good quality, but careers were
discouraged from forming attachments with the children (i.e. privation
occurred). By age 4, 24 children were adopted, 15 returned to their natural
home (restored), and the rest stayed in institutions
They were also compared with a control group, who had
spent all their lives in their own families. The control group was closely
matched to the children in the experimental group. For example, in terms of
sibling number, home location (London), parental occupation, position in
family, age, gender etc. The children were assessed for social and emotional
competence at four, eight and sixteen years old. The assessment comprised
interviewing the children and their parents and teachers and a set of
questionnaires.
Findings
At four years of age none of the institutionalized
children had formed attachments, but by eight years of age those who were
adopted had formed good attachments. Also their social and intellectual
development was better than that of children returned to their own families.
Those returned to their natural families (restored)
showed more behavioral problems and the attachments were weaker. Nevertheless
all those children who had spent their early years in institutions were more
attention-seeking from adults and showed some difficulties in their social
relationships, particularly with their peers.
Some of these children were interviewed again at 16
years of age, as were their parents and care-workers. They were compared with a
new control group as the original control children no longer matched the children
in the adopted and restored groups.
Hodges and Tizard found that the adopted children still
had good attachments which compared favorably with the control children. Fewer
restored children were reported as having good attachments but the children who
had been brought up in institutional care had experienced most instability and
showed some difficulties in their later attachments.
Conclusion
We can conclude from this evidence that Bowlby was
correct to emphasize the importance of the early years, but the effects of
delay in the formation of attachments do not necessarily persist into adulthood
and lead to affectionless psychopathy, as Bowlby predicted. Indeed, loving
relationships and high quality care are necessary to reverse privation effects.
Evaluation:
However, Hodges and Tizard used interviews and
questionnaires, both of which can produce answers that are affected by social
desirability - the wish to appear in a good light. The responses of those
interviewed may have been inaccurate, and this would affect the results.
Another difficulty in this research is that six of the
original 51 families of eight-year-olds refused to take part in this later
research. It could be that families experiencing more difficulties were more
likely to refuse, and this may also apply to the comparison group, because the
families who agreed to take part may have been those with fairly good
relationships with their 16-year-olds. Thus, the results of the research may be
biased due to the sample.
Institutionalized children don’t just suffer emotional
privation but also poor physical care such as bad diet and also lack of
stimulation. As a result it is difficult to separate out the effects of
privation and of physical care.
e. Conclusion
As an immensely social species, we affect and influence
each other in many ways, particularly through our interactions and cultural
expectations, both conscious and non-conscious. The study of social psychology
examines much of the business of our everyday lives, including our thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors we are unaware or ashamed of. The desire to carefully and
precisely study these topics, together with advances in technology, has led to
the development of many creative techniques that allow researchers to explore
the mechanics of how we relate to one another (Jhangiani,
R., 2017).
Appendix
Reference:
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http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-correlational-and-vs-experimental-research/
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